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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Key themes</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Society" title="Society">Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li>

<li><a href="Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li>

<li>Industrial revolutions <a href="Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li>

<li><a href="Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li>

<li><a href="Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Perspectives</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Branches_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of sociology">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Aging</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_architecture" title="Sociology of architecture">Architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrosociology" title="Astrosociology">Astrosociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">Death</a></li>

<li><a href="Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li>

<li><a href="Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Disaster</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">Emotion</a> (<a href="Social_aspects_of_jealousy" title="Social aspects of jealousy">Jealousy</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Family</a></li>

<li><a href="Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist</a></li>

<li><a href="Fiscal_sociology" title="Fiscal sociology">Fiscal</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Gender</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Generations</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Health</a></li>

<li><a href="Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Immigration</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">Industrial</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_Jewry" title="Sociology of Jewry">Jewry</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Leisure</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematic</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_peace%2C_war%2C_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">Peace, war, and social conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">Philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Punishment</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Race and ethnicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Science</a> (<a href="Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">History of science</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Social_movement_theory" title="Social movement theory">Social movements</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">Sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Space</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sport</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Terrorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban</a></li>

<li><a href="Real_utopian_sociology" title="Real utopian sociology">Utopian</a></li>

<li><a href="Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Social_research" title="Social research">Methods</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li>

<li><a href="Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li>

<li><a href="Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul>

</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">Major theorists</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><b>1700s:</b> <a href="Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> · <a href="Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a><br></li></ul>

<p><b>1800s:</b> <a href="Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a> · <a href="Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> · <a href="Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> · <a href="Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a> · <a href="Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a> · <a href="Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> · <a href="Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a> · <a href="Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a> · <a href="Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> · <a href="%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> · <a href="Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a> · <a href="George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> · <a href="Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> · <a href="W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> · <a href="Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a> · <a href="Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a><br>

</p>

<b>1900s:</b> <a href="Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> · <a href="Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a> · <a href="Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a> · <a href="Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> · <a href="Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a> · <a href="Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a> · <a href="C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a> · <a href="Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a> · <a href="Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a> · <a href="Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a> · <a href="Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a> · <a href="Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> · <a href="Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a> · <a href="J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> · <a href="Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a> · <a href="Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a> · <a href="Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></div></div></td>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Lists</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Bibliography_of_sociology" title="Bibliography of sociology">Bibliography</a></li>

<li>Terminology</li>

<li><a href="List_of_sociology_journals" title="List of sociology journals">Journals</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_sociological_associations" title="List of sociological associations">Organizations</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">People</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li>

<li>By country</li></ul>

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<p>The <b>sociology of education</b> is the study of how public <a href="Institution" title="Institution">institutions</a> and individual experiences affect <a href="Education" title="Education">education</a> and its outcomes. It is mostly concerned with the public schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including the expansion of <a href="Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">higher</a>, <a href="Further_education" title="Further education">further</a>, <a href="Adult_education" title="Adult education">adult</a>, and <a href="Continuing_education" title="Continuing education">continuing</a> education.<sup id="cite_ref-Dictionary_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dictionary-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Education is seen as a fundamentally <a href="Optimistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimistic">optimistic</a> human endeavour characterised by <a href="Hope" title="Hope">aspirations</a> for <a href="Social_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Social progress">progress</a> and betterment.<sup id="cite_ref-schofield_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schofield-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is understood by many to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater <a href="Social_equality" title="Social equality">equality</a>, and acquiring wealth and <a href="Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargent-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Education is perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potential.<sup id="cite_ref-schofield_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schofield-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not only can children develop, but young and older adults too. Social interaction between people through education can always further development no matter what age they are. It is also perceived as one of the best means of achieving greater social equality.<sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargent-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many would say that the purpose of education should be to develop every individual to their full potential, and give them a chance to achieve as much in life as their natural abilities allow (<a href="Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a>). Few would argue that any education system accomplishes this goal perfectly. Some take a particularly critical view, arguing that the education system is designed with the intention of causing the <a href="Social_reproduction" title="Social reproduction">social reproduction</a> of inequality. Sociology is study of human relationship.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foundations">Foundations</h2></div>

<p>Systematic <a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> of <a href="Education" title="Education">education</a> began with the work of <a href="%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> (1858–1917) on moral education as a basis for <a href="Organic_solidarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic solidarity">organic solidarity</a>, and with studies by <a href="Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> (1864–1920) on the <a href="Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Chinese literati</a> as an instrument of political control. After <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, however, the subject received renewed interest around the world: from technological <a href="Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">functionalism</a> in the US, egalitarian reform of opportunity in Europe, and <a href="Human_capital" title="Human capital">human-capital</a> theory in economics. These all implied that, with <a href="Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a>, the need for a technologically skilled labour force undermines <a href="Social_class" title="Social class">class</a> distinctions and other ascriptive systems of stratification, and that education promotes <a href="Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a>. However, statistical and field research across numerous societies showed a persistent link between an individual's social class and achievement, and suggested that education could only achieve limited social mobility.<sup id="cite_ref-Dictionary_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dictionary-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sociological studies showed how schooling patterns reflected, rather than challenged, class stratification and racial and sexual discrimination.<sup id="cite_ref-Dictionary_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dictionary-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the general collapse of <a href="Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">functionalism</a> from the late 1960s onwards, the idea of education as an unmitigated good was even more profoundly challenged. <a href="Neo-Marxists" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Marxists">Neo-Marxists</a> argued that school education simply produced a docile labour force essential to <a href="Late_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Late capitalism">late-capitalist</a> class relations.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_perspectives">Theoretical perspectives</h2></div>

<p>The sociology of education contains a number of theories. Some of the main theories are presented below.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_arithmetic">Political arithmetic</h3></div>

<p>The Political Arithmetic tradition within the sociology of education began with Hogben (1938)<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and denotes a tradition of politically critical quantitative research dealing with social inequalities, especially those generated by social stratification (Heath 2000).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important works in this tradition have been (Glass 1954),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Floud, et al. 1956)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and (Halsey, et al. 1980).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of these works were concerned with the way in which school structures were implicated in social class inequalities in Britain. More recent work in this tradition has broadened its focus to include gender,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ethnic differentials<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and international differences.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While researchers in this tradition have engaged with sociological theories such as Rational Choice Theory<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Cultural Reproduction Theory,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the political arithmetic tradition has tended to remain rather sceptical of 'grand theory' and very much concerned with empirical evidence and social policy. The political arithmetic tradition was attacked by the 'New Sociology of Education' of the 1970s<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which rejected quantitative research methods. This heralded a period of methodological division within the sociology of education. However, the political arithmetic tradition, while rooted in quantitative methods, has increasingly engaged with mixed methods approaches.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_functionalism">Structural functionalism</h3></div>

<p><a href="Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalists</a> believe that society leans towards <a href="Social_equilibrium" title="Social equilibrium">social equilibrium</a> and social order. They see society like a human body, in which institutions such as education are like important organs that keep the society/body healthy and well.<sup id="cite_ref-Bessant_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bessant-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Social reality is structured and differentiated and provides social science with its subject matter. This explains why individuals act as role incumbents and perform specific tasks on a regular basis as manifested at the level of observable event. The relation between teacher and student lies at heart of the realist conception of social structure. The internal relation between roles, distinct from the individual people who fill them and whom they casually affect. The relation between teacher and student is closely internal because each could not exist without each other. Functionalists view education as one of the more important social institutions in society. They emphasize that education contributes to two types of functions: manifest functions, which are the intended and visible functions of education; and latent functions, which are hidden and unintended functions.

</p><p><b>Manifest Functions</b>

</p><p>There are several major manifest functions associated with education. The first is socialization. The French sociologist, Émile Durkheim, established the academic discipline of sociology, characterized schools as, "socialization agencies that teach children how to get along with others and prepare them for adult economic roles" (Durkheim 1898). Socialization involves learning the rules and norms of the society as a whole. One of the roles of schools is to teach students conformity to law and respect for authority. Education is also an important tool used by students towards upward mobility. Higher learning institutions are viewed as vehicles for moving students closer to their careers that will help them become successful.

</p><p><b>Latent Functions</b>

</p><p>Education also fulfills latent functions. Much goes on in school that has little to do with formal education. The educational setting introduces students to social networks that might last for years and can help people find jobs after their schooling is completed. Another latent function is the ability to work with others in small groups, a skill that is transferable to a workplace that might not be learned in a home school setting.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Socialization">Socialization</h4></div>

<p>Social health means the same as social order, and is guaranteed when nearly everyone accepts the general moral <a href="Value_(personal_and_cultural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (personal and cultural)">values</a> of their society. Hence structural functionalists believe the aim of key institutions, such as education, is to socialize children and teenagers. <a href="Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a> is the process by which the new generation learns the knowledge, attitudes and values that they will need as productive <a href="Citizens" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizens">citizens</a>. Education's primary role is to convey basic knowledge and skills to future generations.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although this aim is stated in the formal curriculum,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is mainly achieved through the <a href="Hidden_curriculum" title="Hidden curriculum">hidden curriculum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-harper_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harper-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a subtler, but nonetheless powerful, <a href="Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">indoctrination</a> of the <a href="Norm_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (sociology)">norms</a> and values of the wider society. Students learn these values because their behavior at school is regulated (<a href="Durkheim" class="mw-redirect" title="Durkheim">Durkheim</a> in <sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargent-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) until they gradually internalize and accept them.

</p><p>Additionally, education is an important tool in the transmission of core values. The core values in education reflect on the economic and political systems that originally fueled education. One of the most important core value that is transmitted through the education system is individualism, the principle of being independent and self-reliant. From a very early age children learn that society seeks out and praises the best individuals. Connected to individualism, self-esteem is also developed through educational curriculum. Self-esteem is the ability to have confidence in one's own decisions, therefore, having individualism allows for a growth in self-esteem that cannot be created without. Compared to Japanese students for example, curriculum in Japan is focused on social esteem (focusing on bringing honor to a group) rather than self-esteem.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Filling_roles_in_society">Filling roles in society</h4></div>

<p>Education must also perform another function: As various jobs become vacant, they must be filled with the appropriate people. Therefore, the other purpose of education is to sort and rank individuals for placement in the labor market [Munro, 1997]. Those with high achievement will be trained for the most important jobs and in reward, be given the highest incomes. Those who achieve the least, will be given the least demanding (intellectually at any rate, if not physically) jobs, and hence the least income.

</p><p>According to Sennet and Cobb however, "to believe that ability alone decides who is rewarded is to be deceived".<sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargent-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meighan agrees, stating that large numbers of capable students from working-class backgrounds fail to achieve satisfactory standards in school and therefore fail to obtain the status they deserve.<sup id="cite_ref-meighan_1997_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meighan_1997-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jacob believes this is because the middle class cultural experiences that are provided at school may be contrary to the experiences working-class children receive at home.<sup id="cite_ref-jacob_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacob-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, <a href="Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a> children are not adequately prepared to cope at school. They are therefore "cooled out"<sup id="cite_ref-Foster_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foster-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from school with the least qualifications, hence they get the least desirable jobs, and so remain working class. Sargent confirms this cycle, arguing that schooling supports continuity, which in turn supports <a href="Social_order" title="Social order">social order</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargent-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a> believed that this process, whereby some students were identified and <a href="Label" title="Label">labelled</a> educational failures, "was a necessary activity which one part of the social system, education, performed for the whole".<sup id="cite_ref-meighan_1997_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meighan_1997-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet the structural functionalist perspective maintains that this social order, this <a href="Social_change" title="Social change">continuity</a>, is what most people desire.<sup id="cite_ref-Bessant_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bessant-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this is one of the most critical thing in sociology

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_and_social_reproduction">Education and social reproduction</h3></div>

<p>The perspective of <a href="Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">conflict theory</a>, contrary to the structural functionalist perspective, believes that society is full of vying social groups with different aspirations, different access to life chances and gain different social rewards.<sup id="cite_ref-furze_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-furze-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conflict theory sees the purpose of education as a way to maintain social inequality and a way to preserve the power of those who dominate society.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relations in society, in this view, are mainly based on <a href="Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">exploitation</a>, <a href="Oppression" title="Oppression">oppression</a>, domination and <a href="Insubordination" title="Insubordination">subordination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargent-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Connell_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Connell-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many teachers assume that students will have particular middle class experiences at home, and for some children this assumption isn't necessarily true.<sup id="cite_ref-jacob_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacob-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some children are expected to help their parents after school and carry considerable domestic responsibilities in their often single-parent home.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The demands of this domestic labour often make it difficult for them to find time to do all their homework and thus affects their academic performance.

</p><p>Where teachers have softened the formality of regular study and integrated student's preferred working methods into the curriculum, they noted that particular students displayed strengths they had not been aware of before.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However few teachers deviate from the traditional <a href="Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a>, and the curriculum conveys what constitutes knowledge as determined by the <a href="State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> - and those in power [Young in <sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargent-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>]. This knowledge isn't very meaningful to many of the students, who see it as pointless.<sup id="cite_ref-jacob_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacob-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wilson & Wyn state that the students realise there is little or no direct link between the subjects they are doing and their perceived future in the labour market.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anti-school values displayed by these children are often derived from their consciousness of their real interests. Sargent believes that for working-class students, striving to succeed and absorbing the school's middle class values, are accepting their inferior social position as much as if they were determined to fail.<sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargent-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fitzgerald states that "irrespective of their academic ability or desire to learn, students from poor families have relatively little chance of securing success".<sup id="cite_ref-henry_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-henry-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, for middle and especially upper-class children, maintaining their superior position in society requires little effort. The federal government subsidises 'independent' private schools enabling the rich to obtain 'good education' by paying for it.<sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargent-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With this 'good education', rich children perform better, achieve higher and obtain greater rewards. In this way, the continuation of privilege and wealth for the <a href="Elite" title="Elite">elite</a> is made possible <i>in continuum</i>.

</p><p>Conflict theorists believe this <a href="Social_reproduction" title="Social reproduction">social reproduction</a> continues to occur because the whole education system is overlain with <a href="Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> provided by the dominant group. In effect, they perpetuate the <a href="Myth" title="Myth">myth</a> that education is available to all to provide a means of achieving wealth and status. Anyone who fails to achieve this goal, according to the myth, has only themselves to blame.<sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargent-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wright agrees, stating that "the effect of the myth is to…stop them from seeing that their personal troubles are part of major social issues".<sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargent-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The duplicity is so successful that many parents endure appalling jobs for many years, believing that this sacrifice will enable their children to have opportunities in life that they did not have themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conflict theorists believe that the educational system is maintaining the status quo by dulling the lower classes into being obedient workers.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These people who are poor and disadvantaged are victims of a societal <a href="Confidence_trick" class="mw-redirect" title="Confidence trick">confidence trick</a>. They have been encouraged to believe that a major goal of schooling is to strengthen equality while, in reality, schools reflect society's intention to maintain the previous unequal distribution of status and power [Fitzgerald, cited in <sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargent-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>].

</p><p>Conflict theorists point to several key factors to defend their position. First, conflict theorists look at property tax. Typically, the areas of affluent districts have more money, so they can afford to pay teachers higher salaries, purchase new technology, and attract better teachers. Students in these districts are typically white, which means a majority of minority students in the United States do not receive any of these advantages and are less likely to go to college. This connects to the conflict theorist viewpoint that the educational system is simply a perpetuator of the status quo.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Additionally, conflict theorists including Bowles and Gintis argued that schools directly reproduce social and economic inequalities embedded in the capitalist economy. They believed that this conflict played out in classrooms where students were marked by larger and highly stratified economic structure. Whether or not current leaders in sociology agreed with Bowles and Gintis, they all undeniably came to operate in fields guided by these ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>This perspective has been criticised as <a href="Determinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Determinist">deterministic</a> and pessimistic, while there is some evidence for <a href="Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a> among disadvantaged students.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>It should be recognised however that it is a model, an aspect of reality which is an important part of the picture.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure_and_agency">Structure and agency</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bourdieu_and_cultural_capital">Bourdieu and cultural capital</h4></div>

<p>This theory of <a href="Social_reproduction" title="Social reproduction">social reproduction</a> has been significantly theorised by <a href="Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Pierre Bourdieu</a> who aimed at analyzing social class inequalities in education.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However Bourdieu as a social theorist has always been concerned with the dichotomy between the objective and subjective, or to put it another way, between <a href="Structure_and_agency" title="Structure and agency">structure and agency</a>. Bourdieu has therefore built his theoretical framework around the important concepts of <a href="Habitus_(sociology)" title="Habitus (sociology)">habitus</a>, field and <a href="Cultural_capital" title="Cultural capital">cultural capital</a>. These concepts are based on the idea that objective structures determine individuals' chances, through the mechanism of the habitus, where individuals internalise these structures. However, the habitus is also formed by, for example, an individual's position in various fields, their family and their everyday experiences. Therefore, one's class position does not determine one's life chances, although it does play an important part, alongside other factors.

</p><p>Bourdieu used the idea of <a href="Cultural_capital" title="Cultural capital">cultural capital</a> to explore the differences in outcomes for students from different classes in the <a href="French_educational_system" class="mw-redirect" title="French educational system">French educational system</a>. He explored the tension between the conservative reproduction and the innovative production of knowledge and experience.<sup id="cite_ref-harker_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harker-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He found that this tension is intensified by considerations of which particular cultural past and present is to be conserved and reproduced in schools. Bourdieu argues that it is the culture of the dominant groups, and therefore their cultural capital, which is embodied in schools, and that this leads to social reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-harker_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harker-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>James Coleman also focused a lot on the themes of social reproduction and inequality. Coleman inspired many of the current leaders of sociology of education, but his work also led to a heightened focus on empiricism.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The cultural capital of the dominant group, in the form of practices and relation to culture, is assumed by the school to be the natural and only proper type of cultural capital and is therefore legitimated. It demands "uniformly of all its students that they should have what it does not give" [Bourdieu<sup id="cite_ref-swartz_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swartz-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>]. This legitimate cultural capital allows students who possess it to gain <a href="Educational_capital" title="Educational capital">educational capital</a> in the form of qualifications. Those lower-class students are therefore disadvantaged. To gain qualifications they must acquire legitimate cultural capital, by exchanging their own (usually working-class) cultural capital.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This exchange is not a straightforward one, due to the class ethos of the lower-class students. Class ethos is described as the particular dispositions towards, and subjective expectations of, school and culture. It is in part determined by the objective chances of that class.<sup id="cite_ref-gorder_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gorder-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that not only do children find success harder in school due to the fact that they must learn a new way of 'being', or relating to the world, and especially, a new way of relating to and using language, but they must also act against their instincts and expectations. The subjective expectations influenced by the objective structures found in the school, perpetuate social reproduction by encouraging less-privileged students to eliminate themselves from the system, so that fewer and fewer are to be found as one journeys through the levels of the system. The process of social reproduction is neither perfect nor complete,<sup id="cite_ref-harker_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harker-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but still, only a small number of less-privileged students achieve success. For the majority of these students who do succeed at school, they have had to internalise the values of the dominant classes and use them as their own, to the detriment of their original habitus and cultural values.

</p><p>Therefore, Bourdieu's perspective reveals how objective structures play an important role in determining individual achievement in school, but allows for the exercise of an individual's agency to overcome these barriers, although this choice is not without its penalties.

</p><p><b>Identity</b>

</p><p>Drawing on Bourdieu's ideas, Fuller (2009<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) adds to the theoretical understanding of structure and agency by considering how young people shape their educational identity and how this identity is often the result of messages reflected at them, for example, through grades, setting and gendered expectations. Social location is considered important but its role is complex. Her work considered the importance of understanding the ways that individuals identify within an academic discourse, a discourse that typically situates young people dichotomously; as those who will achieve and those that will not. Understanding the importance of areas such as <a href="Self-efficacy" title="Self-efficacy">self-efficacy</a>, confidence and resilience in shaping educational identity at the level of agent and subsequently, educational attainment and aspirations, has been central to her most recent work.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_sociologists_of_education">Notable sociologists of education</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li>

<li><a href="Randall_Collins" title="Randall Collins">Randall Collins</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Samuel_Coleman" title="James Samuel Coleman">Jim Coleman</a></li>

<li><a href="John_W._Meyer" title="John W. Meyer">John W. Meyer</a></li>

<li><a href="Raymond_Boudon" title="Raymond Boudon">Raymond Boudon</a></li>

<li><a href="Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Pierre Bourdieu</a></li>

<li><a href="Basil_Bernstein" title="Basil Bernstein">Basil Bernstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_Ball_(sociologist)" title="Stephen Ball (sociologist)">Stephen Ball</a></li>

<li><a href="Becky_Francis" title="Becky Francis">Becky Francis</a></li>

<li><a href="Tony_Sewell" title="Tony Sewell">Tony Sewell</a></li>

<li><a href="Claire_Maxwell_(sociologist)" title="Claire Maxwell (sociologist)">Claire Maxwell</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li>Block, A.A., (1997) <i>I'm only bleeding, Education as the Practice of Violence Against Children</i>, Peter Lang, New York</li>

<li>Bourdieu, P., (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge</li>

<li>Bourdieu, P., (1984) Distinction, a Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, Harvard University Press, Cambridge</li>

<li>Bourdieu, P., (1986) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021118172507/http://www.viet-studies.org/Bourdieu_capital.htm">"The Forms of Capital"</a></li>

<li>Bourdieu, P., (1990) Reproduction: In Education, Society and Culture, Sage Publications, London</li>

<li>Bourdieu, P., (1996) The State Nobility, Polity Press, Cambridge</li>

<li>Gabbard, D and Saltman, Ken (eds) (2003) <i>Education as Enforcement: The Militarization and Corporatization of Schooling</i></li>

<li>Grenfell, M. (ed) (2008) Pierre Bourdieu: Key concepts, London, Acumen Press.</li>

<li>R., Mahar, C., & Wilkes, C., (eds) (1990) <i>An Introduction to the Work of Pierre Bourdieu: the practice of theory</i>, Macmillan Press, London</li>

<li>Lampert, K.,(2003) "Prolegomena for Radical Schooling", University Press of America, Maryland</li>

<li>Lampert Khen, (2012) "Meritocratic Education and Social Worthlessness", Palgrave-Macmillan</li>

<li><a href="Paulo_Freire" title="Paulo Freire">Paulo Freire</a>, (2000) <i>Pedagogy of the Oppressed</i> (3rd Ed), Continuum Press, New York</li>

<li>Schofield, K. (1999) "The Purposes of Education", in <i>Queensland State Education: 2010 (Conference Papers)</i></li>

<li>Scuola di Barbiana (School of Barbiana) (1996) "Lettera a una Professoressa" (Letter to a Teacher), FLorence, Libreria Editrice Fiorentina.</li>

<li>Spring, J., (2000) <i>Deculturalization and the struggle for Equality: A brief history of the education of dominant cultures in the U.S.</i> McGraw Hill</li>

<li>Sutherland, E. A. (1900), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/61640">Living Fountains or Broken Cisterns: An Educational Problem for Protestants</a></i>, Review and Herald Publishing Co., Battle Creek, Michigan</li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sociology916" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#eedde9;"><div id="Sociology916" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#eedde9;"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="List_of_basic_sociology_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of basic sociology topics">General aspects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public sociology</a></li>

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<li><a href="Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Sociological theory</a></li>

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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Subfields_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Subfields of sociology">Related fields<br>and subfields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparative_sociology" title="Comparative sociology">Comparative sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li>

<li><a href="Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_society" title="Industrial society">Industrial society</a></li>

<li><a href="Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social anthropology</a></li>

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<li><a href="Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li>

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<li><a href="Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban sociology</a></li>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Sociology_of12" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%">Sociology of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">death</a></li>

<li><a href="Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviance</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">disaster</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">emotions</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">family</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">gender</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">health</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">immigration</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_Internet" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of Internet">Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">knowledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">language</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">leisure</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of medicine">medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">military</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">music</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_peace%2C_war%2C_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">peace, war, and social conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">punishment</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">race and ethnicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">space</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_sports" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of sports">sport</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">science</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_small_groups" title="Sociology of small groups">small groups</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">space</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">stratification</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">terrorism</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">visual</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Major theorists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a></li>

<li><a href="Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li>

<li><a href="Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li>

<li><a href="Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li>

<li><a href="Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a></li>

<li><a href="Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a></li>

<li><a href="Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li>

<li><a href="%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li>

<li><a href="Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li>

<li><a href="Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a></li>

<li><a href="Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a></li>

<li><a href="Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li>

<li><a href="Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li>

<li><a href="Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a></li>

<li><a href="C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a></li>

<li><a href="Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a></li>

<li><a href="Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a></li>

<li><a href="Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li>

<li><a href="Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li>

<li><a href="Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a></li>

<li><a href="J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li>

<li><a href="Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li>

<li><a href="Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#eedde9;;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">